When people think about clothing waste, they usually picture old clothes being thrown away or dumped in landfills.
But according to new research, a huge amount of waste happens much earlier—before clothes even reach store shelves.
Researchers from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology and SINTEF found that nearly half of the textile fibers used to make a cotton T-shirt are lost during production.
Their findings, published in the Journal of Circular Economy, highlight a major hidden problem in the global fashion industry.
Researcher Rakib Ahmed explained that public debate about textile waste usually focuses on what consumers throw away. However, much of the environmental damage occurs long before clothes are worn.
The fashion industry is enormous. Estimates suggest that people around the world buy between 80 and 100 billion pieces of clothing every year. Some estimates also suggest that up to 60 billion items are never sold at all and may eventually end up as waste.
At the same time, the industry is linked to major environmental problems, including greenhouse gas emissions, water use, land consumption, and pollution. Clothing production is estimated to account for around 10% of global greenhouse gas emissions, more than international air travel.
To better understand the issue, the researchers studied the life cycle of a typical cotton T-shirt. They examined what happens to textile fibers over two consecutive product life cycles, including production, use, reuse, and waste management.
The researchers assumed the shirt was manufactured in Bangladesh and later used and discarded in Norway, a scenario they considered representative of global clothing supply chains.
Their analysis revealed that about 44% of the original textile material is lost during the manufacturing process alone. Losses occur during yarn production, textile processing, and garment manufacturing before the shirt even reaches consumers.
The study also found that current recycling systems recover surprisingly little material. Globally, less than 1% of used clothing is recycled back into new textiles.
Even for a relatively recyclable product like a cotton T-shirt, researchers estimated that only about 17% of the original fibers can currently be reused in a new garment.
The team says this shows that improving recycling after clothing is discarded is not enough. Major improvements are also needed much earlier in the supply chain.
According to the researchers, more efficient production methods and better recycling systems during manufacturing could dramatically reduce waste. With improved processes, they estimate that up to 44% of textile materials could potentially be recycled and reused instead of being lost.
These changes could also reduce greenhouse gas emissions by around 10% and lower other environmental impacts, including water use and pollution, by 20% to 25%.
The researchers emphasize that solving the textile waste problem will require cooperation between governments, clothing brands, and manufacturers across the entire production chain—from raw materials to finished products.
While many countries are now increasing efforts to collect used clothing, the study suggests that the biggest opportunity may lie in preventing waste before clothes are ever sold.
